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Introduction to Oriental Civilization

PREFACE

         This book represents the last in a series dealing with the civilizations of China, Japan, and India. It contains source readings that tell us what the Chinese have thought about themselves, the universe they lived in, and the problems they faced living together. It is meant to provide the general reader with an understanding of the background of Chinese civilization, especially as this is reflected in intellectual and religious traditions which have survived into modern times. Much attention is also given, however, to political and social questions which the ordinary history of philosophy or religion would not treat. Indeed, as compared to Japan and India, the dominant traditions of Chinese thought have been less markedly religious in character, there being a noticeable disjunction be­tween the popular practice of religion and the intellectual- activity of the ruling elite, which had a more secular orientation. To compensate some­what for this relative neglect of religious matters by the articulators and preservers of formal tradition, the Appendix in Volume II is devoted to popular religious movements and secret societies.

       As in the other volumes -of this series, the readings are drawn from contemporary literature as well as classical. Since in the modern period the urgency of political and social problems has been uppermost in the minds of educated Chinese, it is natural that such tendencies as reformism, nationalism, liberalism, and Communism should be the center of atten­tion in contemporary writings. If this means that other currents of thought—the influence of Western religions, formal philosophy, and art—are inadequately represented, we can only regret that a survey which spans so many centuries allows less scope than one might want for dealing with the variety of thought in any given period—with significant under­currents and counter trends, or with distinctive individual contributions which nonetheless had little general influence. We have striven for variety and balance in the presentation of Chinese thought as a whole, not necessarily of each era and dynasty.

         A further word may be needed concerning the rigid selectivity we have thus been forced to adopt. Those with a distaste for metaphysics and mystical psychology may wonder why almost three chapters are devoted to such aspects of Buddhist and Neo-Confucian philosophy (which in­deed present formidable problems in translation and interpretation) when much material that is less forbidding and more understandable in the literature of Chinese thought has been left out. The reason is that we have tried to represent the Chinese tradition in all its range and depth, not merely in its most approachable and appealing aspects. To discard centuries of speculative thought, which the Chinese have considered of great significance in their own tradition, would only be to confirm the common stereotype of the Chinese as practical and worldly in outlook. Practical and worldly they are, but they have also manifested a speculative and contemplative quality of mind which few other peoples can match, and which shows itself in the writings of even so “practical” a man as Mao Tse-tung.

         In contrast to most anthologies the translations included here are for the most part our own, and a major portion are of texts not previously translated into English. Because of the unfamiliarity and complexity of many subjects dealt with, we have found it necessary to include more historical and explanatory material than is usual in a set of source read­ings. Nevertheless, the reader who seeks a fuller knowledge of the historical and institutional background would do well to consult a general or cultural history. It is also possible, of course, to find further literature on some subjects dealt with here in only summary fashion. For topics in traditional Chinese philosophy, Wing-tsit Chan’s An Outline and Annotated Bibliography of Chinese Philosophy (Far Eastern Publications, Yale, 1959), and for topics in modern Chinese thought, the bibliography ap­pended to J. K. Fairbank, The United States and China, rev. ed. (Cam­bridge, Mass, Harvard, 1958), will prove useful as a reading guide.

       The preparation of this volume has been forwarded by the generous collaboration of colleagues at both Columbia and sister institutions. Be­cause of the cooperative nature of the project, and the necessity for in­tegrating and adapting diverse contributions to form a coherent whole, there are few chapters for which a single individual can be identified as the sole author, and the general editor must assume the responsibility for the final form in which each appears.

         The contributions of various collaborators may, however, be roughly listed as follows: Mr. de Bary is the principal author of chapters 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 25. As editor he is also responsible for the general plan of the work and for most of the introductory materials in their present form. Wing-tsit Chan of Dartmouth College has assisted in many aspects of the editorial work and is also principal author of chapters II, 13, 14, 17, 18, 24, and the Appendix. Burton Watson, mainly responsible for chapters I and 7, 8, 9, and 10 and the final section of chapter 16, also devoted the year 1955-56 to editorial tasks of many types in connection with chapters 1-19. Y. p. Mei of the State University of Iowa contributed substantially to chapters 2,3,4,5, and 6; Leon Hurvitz, now of the University of Wash­ington, to chapters 12 to 14; T’ung-tsu ch’u, formerly of Columbia and now of Harvard University, to chapters 15 and 16, and Chester Tan of New York University to chapters 22 and 23. John Meskill helped with the final checking of the manuscript, maps, chronological tables, and the bibliography (available in the clothbound edition).

Wm. Theodore De Bary

Columbia College

New York City

July, 1963

CONTENTS

Chronological Table

Chapter I: The Chinese Tradition in Antiquity

Book of History, 8; Book of Odes

Chapter II: Confucius

Selections from the Analects,

Chapter III: Mo Tzu: Universal Love, Utilitarianism, and Uniformity

Selections from the Mo Tzu,

Chapter IV: Taoism

METAPHYSICS AND GOVERNMENT IN THE LAO TZU

Selections from the Lao Tzu (or Tao-te Ching),

SKEPTICISM AND MYSTICISM IN CHUANC TZU

Selections from the Chuang Tzu,

Chapter V: Molders of the Confucian Tradition

MENCIUS ON GOVERNMENT AND HUMAN NATURE

Selections from the Mencius,

RATIONALISM AND REALISM IN HSUN TZU

Selections from the Hsiin Tzu,

THE GREAT LEARNING (ta HSUEH)

Selections from The Great Learning,

THE MEAN (chung Yung)

Selections from The Mean,

Chapter VI: The Legalists

THE THEORIES OF HAN FEJ TZU

Selection from the Han Fei Tzu,

LI ssu: LEGALIST THEORIES IN PRACTICE

Memorial on Annexation of Feudal States; Memorial on the Abolition of Feudalism; Memorial on the Burning of Books; Memorial on Exercising Heavy Censure

Chapter VII: The Imperial Order

THE HAN REACTION TO Ch’iN despotism

CHIA 1: The Faults of ch’in,

The Rebellion of Ch’en She and Wu Kuang; The Rise of Liu Chi, Founder of the Han; Liu Chi Becomes the First Emperor of the Han Dynasty

THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTION

The Quietude of the Ruler and the Delegation of Power; Political Relativism and the Importance to Timeliness

THE MORAL LEADERSHIP OF THE EMPEROR

The Moral Power of the Ruler

TUNG chung-shu: The Threefold Obligations of the Ruler; How the Way of the King Joins the Trinity; Human Nature and Edu­cation; Rites, Music, and Morality

FILIAL PIETY

THE theory of portents

The Theory of Portents; Portentous Happenings During the Han and Their Significance,

THE dynastic mandate

The Age of Grand Unity and the Rise of Dynastic Rule; On the Destiny of Kings; On the Auspicious Omens Accompanying Wang Mang’s Rise

CONCLUSION

Chapter VIII: The Universal Order

THE INTELLECTUAL SYNTHESIS

Conclusion to the Huai-nan Tzu,

SSUMA tan: The Discussion of the Essentials of the Six Schools

THE CREATION, STRUCTURE, AND WORKING OP THE UNIVERSE

The Creation of the Universe; Theories of the Structure of the Universe; The “Great Appendix” to the Book of. Changes: The Process of Universal Change; The Beginning/ of Human Culture,

THE FIVE AGENTS

The Reconstruction of Chinese History

TUNC chunc-shu: Production and Succession of the Five Agents

THE CONCEPT AND MARKING OF TIME HEAVEN, EARTH, AND MAN

Lii-shih ch’un-ch’iu: The First Month of Spring

Chapter IX: The Economic Order an

Economic Distress at the End of the Ch’in Dynasty; Edict of Emperor Wen on the Primacy of Agriculture

Ch’ao ts’o: Memorial on the Encouragement of Agriculture; TUNC chung-shu: Memorial on Land Reform

STATE CONTROL OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

The Debate on Salt and Iron

THE REFORMS OF WANG MANG

Edict on Land Reform

CONCLUSION

Chapter X: The Great Han Historians

THE RECORDS OF THE HISTORIAN

SSU-MA ch’ien: The Sacred Duty of the Historian; Methods of the Historian

The Writing of the First Dynastic History

Chapter XI: Neo-Taoism

TAOISM IN PHILOSOPHY

KUO HSIANG: Commentary on the Chuang Tzu

HSI k’ang: On Partiality; On the Nourishment of Life;

The Lieh Tzu; The “Yang Chu” Chapter of Lieh Tzu

TAOISM IN ART

Tsung ping: Introduction to Landscape Painting

WANG WEI: Introduction to Painting; RELIGIOUS TAOISM

Ko hung: The Belief in Immortals; Alchemy; The Merit System; Taoism in Relation to Other Schools

Chapter XII: The Introduction of Buddhism

BASIC TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM

THE COMING OF BUDDHISM TO CHINA

Mou tzu: The Disposition of Error

Hui-yuan: a Monk Does Not Bow Down Before a King

Chapter XIII: The Schools of Buddhism

THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF SECTARIAN BUDDHISM

THE SCHOOLS OF CHINESE BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

The Three-Treatise School

Chi-tsang: The Profound Meaning of the Three Treatises

The School of Consciousness-Only

Hsuan-chuang: Confirmation of the Consciousness Only System

The Lotus School: T’ien-T’ai Syncretism

The Scripture of the Lotus of the Wonderful Law

Hui-ssu: The Method of Concentration and Insight in the Mahãyana,

Chih-k’ai: The Profound Meaning of the Scripture of the Lotus of the Wonderful Law; The Great Concenưation and Insight

The Flower Garland School

Fa-tsang: A Chapter on the Golden Lion

Chapter XIV: The Schools of Buddhism II

THE PURE LAND SCHOOL

T’an-luan: Commentary to Vasubandhu’s Essay on Rebirth; tao-ch’o: Compendium on the Happy Land

THE MEDITATION SCHOOL

The Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch; Shen-hui: Elucidating the Doctrine; I-hsuan: a Sermon; PEN-CHI: Questions and Answers

Chapter XV: Precursors of the Confucian Revival HAN Ytj’s COUNTERATTACK on taoism and buddhism

Memorial on the Bone of Buddha; Discourse on Teachers (Shih-shuo); What is the True Way? (Yuan Tao)

Emperor Wu-tsung’s Edict on the Suppression of Buddhism

Chapter XVI: The Confucian Revival in the Sung

Ou-Yang hsiu: Essay on Fundamentals (Pen lun); On Parties,

THE CONFUCIAN PROGRAM OP REFORM

Ch’eng yi: Memorial to the Emperor Jen-tsung; Ch’eng hao: Ten Matters Calling for Reform; CHANG Tsai: Land Equalization and Feudalism; Su hsun: The Land System—A Dissenting View

THE NEW LAWS OP WANG AN-SHIH

WANG an-shih: Memorial to the Emperor Jen-tsung; Memorial on the Crop Loans Measure,

Ch’eng hao: Remonstrance Against the New Laws; Wang an-shih: In Defense of Five Major Policies

Su shih: Memorial to Emperor Shen-tsung on the New‘Laws of Wang An-shih

SSU-MA kuanc: a Petition to Do Away With the Most Harmful of the New Laws;

CHU hsi: Wang An-shih in Retrospect; ACHIEVEMENTS in the WRITING of HISTORY

Diaries of Action and Repose; Lu tsu-ch’ien : A Discussion of History; Principle or Reason

THE NEW COSMOLOGY AND ETHICS OF CHOU TUN-YI

An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate; Selections from An Interpretation of the Book of Changes

A NUMERICAL UNIVERSE IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SHAO YUNG

Selections from the Supreme Principles Governing the World

CHANG TSAI AND THE UNDERLYING UNITY OF MATERIAL-FORCE

Great Harmony; The “Western Inscription” (Hsi-ming)

PRINCIPLE AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN NATURE IN CH’ENG YI

CHENC ch’iao: General Preface to the T’ung Chih

MA tuan-lin: Preface to the General Study of Literary Remains; Introduction to the Survey on the Land Tax

SSU-MA kuang: a Discussion of Dynastic Legitimacy

chi; hsi: General Rules for the Writing of the Outline and Digest of the General Mirror (T’ung-chien kang-mu)

Principle and the Universe; Human Nature; Seriousness and Humanity; Investigation of Things; Criticism of Buddhism and Taoism

THE SYNTHESIS OF SUNG NEO-CONFUCIANISM IN CHU HSI

Principle and Material-Force; The Great Ultimate; Heaven and Earth; Heavenly and Earthly Spirits; The Rela­tion Between the Nature of Man and Things and Their Destiny;

The Nature of Man and Things; The Nature of Man and the Na­ture of Things Compared; Physical Nature; The Mind; The Mind, the Nature, and the Feelings; Humanity

Chapter XVIII: Neo-Confucianism: The School of the Mind or Intuition

CH ENG HAO AND THE MIND OF HEAVEN AND MAN

Selections from the Complete Works of the Two Chengs

THE UNIVERSAL MIND IN LU HSIANG-SHAN

Selections from the Complete Works of Lu Hsiang-shan

MORAL INTUITION AND ACTION IN WANC YANG-MING

Inquiry on the Great Learning; The Identification of Mind and Principle; The Unity of Knowledge and Action; The Col­loquy at the T’ien-ch’uan Bridge

Chapter XIX: The Late Harvest of Confucian Scholarship

HUANO TSUNC-HSI’s CRITIQUE OF CHINESE DESPOTISM

A Plan for the Prince

WANG PU-CHIH

Dynastic Rule and the Preservation of the Race; China and the Barbarian Tribes; The Way Does Not Exist Outside of Its Practical Application; On the Inapplicability of Ancient Institutions to Modern Times; On the Use of Laws,

KU YEN-WU, BEACON OF CH’ING scholarship

True Learning: Broad Knowledge, and a Sense of Shame; Pre­face to the Record of the Search for Antiquities; On the Concen­tration of Authority at Court; The Feudal System vs. the Prefectural System

THE TWILIGHT of Confucian thought

Index

Map: Early China

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