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PREFACE

         Much has been written on early Buddhism and yet the need of a fresh study of the subject can hardly be gainsaid. Mrs. Rhys Davids has raised the all-important question: what was the original message of Buddhism? This pointed query has rudely disturbed the almost setled composure of Buddhist scholarship. As soon as it is admitted that the original mandate of Buddhism might have been something different from what it is tradition­ally reported to have been—and tradition is not unani­mous—we are forced to adopt a more critical, a more historical outlook towards our texts; and the adoption of this New Approach, of which Mrs. Rhys Davids has been the pioneer, at once necessitates a re-study of the problems of Buddhist origins.

         At the very outset we have to realize that even the earliest available collections within the Buddhist canon are of uncertain date and heterogeneous contents. Mrs. Rhys Davids has drawn attention to the fact that the Nikãyas do not preach a uniform set of doctrines. It will be seen that they contain within themselves the seeds of multiform growth. From what we know about the 1 Chinese Ãgamas it appears safe to draw a similar general conclusion about them. A historical approach to an­cient Buddhism, therefore, most certainly entails the stratification of the Nikãyas and the Ãgamas. The task is attempted with reference to the Nikãyas in Chapters I-VII.

         There is, again, an additional reason for a fresh study of the subject. The discoveries in the Indus Valley have revolutionized our perspective of the foundations of Indian religion and culture. They have shown that a civilized non-Vedic culture once existed in prehistoric India. This invalidates the common assumption that all higher thought in India existing before Buddha must necessarily have had a Vedic origin. In fact, civilization in India, as elsewhere, has been, a composite creation. Numerous races and cultural com­munities have met and struggled and mingled in the long history of Indian culture which has progressed through the synthesis of diverse conflicts. It seems desirable to review from this standpoint the development of Vedic religion and culture and of the social and intel­lectual tendencies of the Age of Buddha and Mahãvĩra. The task is here attempted principally in Chapters VIII-IX.

         Although a great deal has been written on the life of Buddha, it still remains a desideratum to correlate his life and quest, experience and mission, with his teach­ings. This task is attempted in Chapter X.

         There has been much controversy over the “correct” interpretation of such points of Buddhist doctrine as Pratĩyasamutpãda and Nirvana. Now the ancient canonical texts are themselves not quite agreed on these points, which is intelligible enough since the texts in question are spread over a considerable period of time. The “original gospel” assumed various forms in the course of its development and was soon grown over by them to the point of obscurity. It appears that unless the ancient Buddhist ideas are analysed clearly with reference to their historical or genetic relationship it will hardly be possible to trace firmly their original foundations. This task is attempted in Chapters XI— XIII.

         The last two chapters attempt a brief analysis of certain historical problems arising out of the early deve­lopment of Buddhism.

         The present work is, thus, designed to consist of a group of organically connected historical studies relating to the origins of Buddhism. It is the doctrinal rather than the institutional aspect of Buddhism that is mainly considered. The subject-matter is for the greater part of a literary and religio-philosophic character, but the treatment is intended to be primarily historical.

         The approach has been mainly through the Indian sources of Buddhism. Chinese and Tibetan sources have also been utilized as far as possible, though not from the original languages. The present work is substantial­ly identical with a thesis of the same title which was ap­proved in the University of Allahabad for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1947. The arrangement of material has been altered, and necessary modifications have been made in the light of subsequent study and reflection.

         My deepest debt is to Pt. K. Chattopadhyaya, Read­er in Sanskrit, University of Allahabad, who supervised my research work and has guided me all along. I am profoundly grateful to the authorities of the University of Allahabad viz., Sri B. N. Jha, Vice-Chancellor, Dr. B. R. Saksena, D.Litt., Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Sri K. L. Govil, Registrar, Dr. B. p. Saksena, Ph.D., Profes­sor of History, and Sri G. R. Sharma, Head of the Depart­ment of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, who have made the publication of the present work possible.

         It is regretted that owing to haste some misprints, which mostly do not affect the sense, have escaped proof­reading. Except for some obvious omissions of diacritical and punctuation marks, these have, however, been indicated in the list of errata at the end.

         I am thankful to Sri Brij Nath Singh Yadav, M.A., D.Phil., for his help in the preparation of the Index. I am also thankful to Sri H. P. Ghosh, Manager, Indian Press, and Sri K. P. Dar, Press Manager, for their help­ful co-operation in the printing of the present work.

G. C. Pande

CONTENTS

PART I – STUDIES IN EARLY BUDDHIST SOURCES

I. The Buddhist Canon and Its Chronology

The Abhidharma and its versions; The Vinaya and its versions; The Nikảyas and the Ãgamas; The chronology of the canon, esp., of the Nikãyas.

II. The Stratification of the Nikãyas: Prob­lems AND Methods

Critical résumé of previous work; The criteria of stratification; The state of doctrinal evolution; Interpolation; Voca­bulary and other linguistic features; Geo­graphy; Political and Social data; Prose and verse.

III. The Stratification of Suttanipãta, Itivuttaka and Udãna

Suttanipãta: Chinese evidence; The Atthakavagga; The Pãrãyana-vagga; The Mahãvagga; Conclusion. Itivuttaka: Chinese version; The various Nipãtas; Conclusion; Udãna: Prose and verse; The various Vaggas; Conclusion.

IV. Early and Late in the Dĩgha-Nikãya

Early and late in Dĩrghãgama and Dighanikãya; Analysis of the Suttas; Conclu­sion.

V. Early and Late in the Majjhima-Nikaya

The grouping and order of the Suttas; Classification and analysis of the Suttas; Con­clusion.

VI. Early and Late in the Samyutta-Nikaya

Samyutta-nikaya and Samyuktãgama; Analysis; Conclusion

VII. Early and Late in the Anguttara-Nikaya;

Aiiguttara-nikãya and the Ekottarágama; Form and Style; Partial stratification.

PART II – STUDIES IN THE HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF EARLY BUDDHISM

VIII. Review of the Vedic Background

The significance of Pre-Vedic Civilisation; Munis and Sramanas in the Vedic Age; The development of Vedic society; Gods and men; Ritual and its development; Brahmana Eschatology and Transmigra­tion; Moral revolution; The growth of Self-knowledge; Yoga; The origins of Sankhya.

IX. Religious Conditions in the Age of Buddha

Social being and social consciousness; Social change in the Age of Buddha. The Brahmanas and their religion; Popular religion; The rise of asceticism; Intel­lectual ferment; Early Jaina faith.

X. THE Life of Buddha

Sources; Early life and circumstances; Re­nouncing the world; The Noble Quest and Enlightenment; The spread of Bud­dha’s doctrine; Buddha’s personality.

PART III – STUDIES IN EARLY BUDDHIST DOCTRINES

XI. Suffering And Its Origin

The Noble Truths; Suffering and its place in Buddha’s teachings; The origin of Suffering; The interpretations of Pratitya- samutpada; The two aspects of Pratitya- samutpãda; The general principle; The Middle Way; Pratityasamutpada; The applied form; The development of formula.

XII. Nirvãna

The interpretations of Nirvãna—ancient and modern; The problem of Nirvana; Sambodhi and Nirvãna; The’meaning and significance of Dharma; Nirvãna and Pratityasamutpada; The nature of Nirvãna; The problem of Self; Historical analysis of the Nikaya data; Buddha’s Silence; Con­clusion.

XIII. The Way To Nirvãna

The Way and the Truth; The Buddhist Way and the Upanisads; Sĩla—Samãdhĩ— Prajfia; Bodhipakkhiyadhammas; Moral culture; Concentration and meditation; Stages of spiritual progress.

XIV. Early Buddhism In Relation To Its Rivals And Forerunners

Jainism; Sãhkhya; Yoga; The Vedic tra­dition.

XV. Some Trends In The Post-Nikaya Development Of Early Buddhism

The origin of schism; The sects; The chief controversies and lines of develop­ment.

Appendix I—Early Jain a Sources

Appendix II—The Home of Pali

Appendix III—On the Maitrãyanĩya Upanisad

Abbreviations and Bibliography

Index

Errata

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